Works Cited

“About · Slavery Images.” http://www.slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/page/about. 

 

Batson, Dawn K. ‘Voices of Steel A Historical Perspective’. In Carnival: Culture in Action: the Trinidad 

Experience, edited by Riggio, Milla Cozart, 195-205. London: Routledge, 2004.

 

Browne, Kevin Adonis. High Mas: Carnival and the Poetics of Caribbean Culture. Jackson: University 

Press of Mississippi, 2018. 

 

Carmichael, Mrs. (A. C.). Domestic Manners And Social Condition of the White, Coloured, And Negro

 Population of the West Indies. 2d ed. London: Whittaker, 1834.

 

"Dance at Plantation, Trinidad, 1836", Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade and 

Slave Life in the Early African Diaspora, accessed February 23, 2021, 

http://slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/item/988

 

Day, Charles William. Five Years' Residence In the West Indies. London: Colburn and co., 1852.

 

Elder, J. D. "Cannes Brûlées." TDR, no. 3 (1998): 38-43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1146678.

 

Hill, Errol. "Traditional Figures In Carnival: Their Preservation, Development And Interpretation." 

Caribbean Quarterly 31, no. 2 (1985): 14-34. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23050401.

 

"Jaw-Bone, or House John-Canoe", Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade and 

Slave Life in the Early African Diaspora. http://slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/item/2311

 

Johnson, Kim, and Derek Gay. "Notes on Pans." TDR, no. 3 (1998): 61-73. 

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1146681.

 

"Koo, Koo, or Actor-Boy", Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade and Slave Life in 

the Early African Diaspora. http://slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/item/2309

 

Liverpool, Hollis Urban. "Origins of Rituals and Customs in the Trinidad Carnival: African or 

European?" TDR, no. 3 (1998): 24-37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1146677.

 

Liverpool, Hollis. Rituals of Power and Rebellion: the Carnival Tradition in Trinidad and Tobago,

 1763-1962. Research Associates School Times, 2001. 

 

Martinez-Ruiz, Barbaro. "Sketches of Memory: Visual Encounters with Africa in Jamaican Culture." In 

Art and Emancipation in Jamaica: Isaac Mendes Belisario and His Worlds, edited by Tim 

Barringer and Gillian Forrester and Barbaro Martinez-Ruiz. New Haven: Yale Center for British

 Art, (2019). https://www-aaeportal-com.ezproxy.neu.edu/?id=-18630.

 

Nurse, Keith. “Globalization And Trinidad Carnival: Diaspora, Hybridity And Identity In Global 

Culture.” Cultural Studies, 13:4 (1999):661-690, DOI:10.1080/095023899335095

 

Plaza, Dwaine; DeCosmo, Jan. ‘Women and the De-Africanization of Trinidad Carnival: From the 

Jamette to Bikini, Beads, and Feathers’.Carnival Is Woman: Feminism and Performance in 

Caribbean Mas, edited by Henry, Frances, 21-39, University Press of Mississippi, 2020

 

Riggio, Milla Cozart. ‘’Play Mass’ - Play Me, Play We’ In Carnival: Culture in Action: the Trinidad 

Experience, edited by Riggio, Milla Cozart, 93-108. London: Routledge, 2004. 

 

Riggio, Milla C. "Introduction: Resistance and Identity: Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago." TDR (1988-) 

42, no. 3 (1998): 7-23. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1146676.

 

Reddie, Anthony. “The Oral Tradition of African-Caribbean People as a Resource for Black Christian 

Formation”, British Journal of Theological Education, 10:1, (1998) 16-25, DOI: 

10.1080/1352741X.1998.11673917

 

"Stick Fighting, Dominica, West Indies, 1779 ", Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave 

Trade and Slave Life in the Early African Diaspora

http://www.slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/item/1024 

 

Thompson, Robert Farris. "Charters for the Spirit: Afro-Jamaican Music and Art." In Art and 

Emancipation in Jamaica: Isaac Mendes Belisario and His Worlds, edited by Tim Barringer and 

Gillian Forrester and Barbaro Martinez-Ruiz. New Haven: Yale Center for British Art, (2019). 

https://www-aaeportal-com.ezproxy.neu.edu/?id=-18629.

 

Walcott, Derek. “The Antilles: Fragments of Epic Memory.” NobelPrize.org, December 7, 1992. 

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1992/walcott/lecture/.

 

Images Cited

 

Ali, Azad. “Chalkdust Awarded T&T’s Highest Honor.” Caribbean Life News, September 26, 2019. 

https://www.caribbeanlifenews.com/chalkdust-awarded-tts-highest-honor/.

 

“1835 Map of Trinidad and Tobago.” Britishempire.co.uk, 2015. 

https://www.britishempire.co.uk/images2/britishislands1835map.jpg.

 

Crowley, Daniel J. "The Traditional Masques of Carnival." Caribbean Quarterly 4, no. 3/4 (1956): 

194-223. Accessed March 9, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40652635.

 

"Gold Coast Music", Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade and Slave Life in the 

Early African Diaspora, accessed March 9, 2021, 

http://www.slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/item/2108 

 

Hans Sloane, A voyage to the islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, . . . and islands of America. (London, 1707), vol. 1, pp. l-li. (Copy in the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University

 

Henry, Frances. Carnival Is Woman: Feminism and Performance in Caribbean Mas. University Press of 

Mississippi, 2020. 

 

“Junkanoo.” Wikipedia, November 30, 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkanoo.

 

Mouallem, Omar. “Trinidad: A Caribbean Vacation with an Indian Flavor.” Wall Street Journal, January 

17, 2020, sec. Life.

https://www.wsj.com/articles/trinidad-a-caribbean-vacation-with-an-indian-flavor-11579282755.

 

Prior, Melton. “Carnival in Port of Spain, Trinidad, May 5, 1888,.” The Illustrated London 

News, 1888.

 

Riggio, Milla Cozart. Carnival: Culture in Action: the Trinidad Experience. London: Routledge, 2004. 

 

"Sugar Cane Harvest, Trinidad, 1836", Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade 

and Slave Life in the Early African Diaspora, accessed March 9, 2021, 

http://www.slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/item/1112

 

“The Joyful and Riotous Steel Drum.” KCRW, September 11, 2018. 

https://www.kcrw.com/music/articles/the-joyful-and-riotous-steel-drum.

Further Readings

Brathwaite, E. L. "Caribbean Theme: A Calypso." Caribbean Quarterly 4, no. 3/4 (1956): 246-49. 

http://www.jstor.org/stable/40652638.

 

Daniel, Yvonne. Caribbean and Atlantic Diaspora Dance : Igniting Citizenship, 2011.

 

“Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society.” 

https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/des.

 

Fergus, Claudius. "From Slavery To Black Power: The Enigma Of Africa In The Trinidad Calypso." 

Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, no. 16 (2014): 1-26.  

https://www.jstor.org/stable/26512496.

 

Henry, Frances. Carnival Is Woman: Feminism and Performance in Caribbean Mas. University 

Press of Mississippi, 2020.

 

Guzda, John K. "The Canboulay Riot of 1881: Influence of Free Blacks On Trinidad's Carnival," 

The Exposition: Vol. 1: Iss. 1, Article 4.(2012)

 

Juanita De Barros, Audra Diptee, and David Vincent Trotman. Beyond Fragmentation : 

Perspectives on Caribbean History. Princeton, Nj: M. Wiener Publishers, 2006.

 

Linda Tuhiwai Smith. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. London: 

Zed, 1998.

 

“Keywords for Caribbean Studies.” caribbeandigitalnyc.net.

http://caribbeandigitalnyc.net/keywords/2020/11/21/carnival/.

 

Kincaid, Jamaica. A Small Place. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2000.

 

Meagan, Sylvester. "Ragga Soca Burning the Moral Compass: An Analysis of “Hellfire” Lyrics in the 

Music of Bunji Garlin." Black Music Research Journal 36, no. 1 (2016): 87-106. 

doi:10.5406/blacmusiresej.36.1.0087.

 

Pearse, Andrew. "Mitto Sampson on Calypso Legends of the Nineteenth Century." Caribbean Quarterly 

4, no. 3/4 (1956): 250-62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40652639.

 

Procope, Bruce. "The Dragon Band or Devil Band." Caribbean Quarterly 4, no. 3/4 (1956): 275-80. 

 http://www.jstor.org/stable/40652641.

 

Riggio, Milla Cozart. Carnival: Culture in Action: the Trinidad Experience. London: Routledge, 2004.

 

Scher, Philip W. Carnival and the Formation of a Caribbean Transnation. Gainesville: 

University Press Of Florida, 2003.

 

Scher, Philip W. "The Devil and the Bed-Wetter: Carnival, Memory, National Culture, and Post-Colonial 

Conciousness in Trinidad." Western Folklore 66, no. 1/2 (2007): 107-26. Accessed March 9, 

  1. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25474847.